Edumacation 101

Ambition and drive are vital forces when a person attempts to succeed within the world. Whether it is in education, vocation, or station, one cannot move forward if he or she is not driven by the invisible force which continues to push. However, ambition unchecked is also can also be a dreadfully destructive force which has the potential to decimate lives and leave nothing but ruin and pain in its wake. Ambition has propelled people to realize their full potential fate even in the face of seemingly insurmountable odds. However, ambition is also responsible for the undoing of many people and even complete cultures. Shakespeare’s tragic play Macbeth is a prime example of how ambition has the potential to destroy as much as it has the power to propel one forward toward a goal.

Within the play, Macbeth is a successful Scottish general who is acclaimed by both king and countrymen. The play begins with Macbeth and Banquo, a fellow general in the Scottish army, returning to the king following both of their successful bids to stave off invading armies. Upon the road on the way back to the King’s court, the generals encountered a band of witches who cast their fortunes and predict their futures. The witches tell Macbeth that he will be named Thane of Cawdor which is a position of nobility within the Scottish system of monarchy which was present at the time. Following his appointment to Thane, the witches tell him that he will eventually succeed the throne of Scotland and be crowned king. Banquo’s fortune is that he himself will never wear the crown himself, but that he will sire a line of Scottish kings. The men are doubtful of the reality of their fortunes until they are met on the road by a group of well-wishers who tell Macbeth that, following a treasonous act by the current Thane, he was appointed to the position following his military success against the invading foreign powers.

Macbeth shows the first hint of his ambitions in a comment which he made to Banquo following his realization that the witches’ prediction was beginning to take shape. Following being informed that he is now the Thane of Cawdor, he speaks to Banquo about the witches’ prediction to the fate of his kingly line. “Do you not hope your children shall be kings / When those that gave the Thane of Cawdor to me / Promised no less to them?” (I.iii.118-120). Although Macbeth is speaking of Banquo’s fortune directly, it can be easily inferred by the reader that Macbeth’s central concern is not Banquo’s lineage. Rather, his mood is alighted more by the witches’ prediction regarding his future assumption of Scotland’s kingship.

Upon returning to the King’s court, Macbeth was greeted by King Duncan and the two noblemen decide upon a dinner meeting at Macbeth’s castle, Iverness. Macbeth, after taking his leave from the King, returned to his castle to see to the preparations for the dinner with the King. Macbeth was the greeted by his wife, Lady Macbeth. A sinister chain of events began when Macbeth informed Lady Macbeth of the witches’ prophecy. However, at this point in the play, Macbeth is fraught with reservation about the reality of the predictions made about Macbeth’s life. Again, the reader now is able to experience the devastating effect which ambition can have on a person.

Lady Macbeth shares none of Macbeth’s reservations about his ascension to the throne. She desperately wants to be the queen of Scotland. Therefore, she and Macbeth hatch a plan to accelerate Macbeth’s rise to power. They plot to kill the king while he sleeps in his bed chamber at Iverness. In order to do so, the king’s stewards must be subdued. To accomplish this task, the Macbeths provide the stewards with copious amounts of alcohol which causes them to black out in drunkenness. Following the stewards lapse, Macbeth sneaks into Duncan’s bed chamber and murders him. When the king’s death is discovered the following morning, Macbeth, in a wave of mock fury, slays the stewards who were made to bear the burden of the king’s demise. Macbeth, riding his wave of military popularity and new noble position, assumes the mantle of king. Duncan’s heirs then fled the country to preserve their own lives.

The remainder of the play is marked by Macbeth’s decent into a delusional state brought on by the paranoia of the remainder of the witches’ prophecy which called for Banquo’s line to inherit the kingship. Ambition once again rears its ugly head and forces Macbeth to act outside of his honorable persona which accompanied his exploits on the battlefield. In order to solidify the power of his kingship and his line, Macbeth arranged for the murder of his friend and fellow general Banquo along with Banquo’s son Fleance. The ambush occurs as planned, but the assassins were unable to kill Fleance. Therefore, Macbeth’s fears were not assuaged. Rather, on the contrary, his paranoia began to elevate to new levels causing him to once again visit the witches. The witches warn Macbeth that he should be wary of a Scottish nobleman named Macduff, he would be safe until Birnam wood began to appear in his castle, and he was unable to be harmed by any man who was born of a woman. The witches’ report dulls Macbeth’s wariness as be believes that he is invincible as every man is born of a woman.

It is important to note the effect which Macbeth’s ambition and paranoia had on his nobility. They were extremely wary of the behavior which Macbeth had been displaying and that he was using his power inappropriately. Therefore, there was much discontent in the ranks of the nobility regarding Macbeth’s presence on the throne. The culmination of the play follows the invasion of Scotland by Duncan’s sons. The invasion is backed by the Scottish nobility as Macbeth’s erratic behavior had alienated him from the good graces of the nobility. Macbeth finally meets Macduff on the battlefield still feeling confident as he completely believed the witches’ prophecy that he would be unable to be harmed by any man born of a woman. Macduff then informs Macbeth that he was not born by his mother; rather, he was rent from her whom. Macbeth then realizes his folly and sees his demise; however, Macbeth continues to fight until he is ultimately killed by Macduff.

The lesson to be learned from Shakespeare’s Macbeth is that unadulterated ambition will eventually lead to one’s ultimate demise. Ambition is a human characteristic that is both necessary, but also extremely dangerous. Macbeth’s bloody rise to power and descent into mad paranoia cast a strong warning to the reader to always be wary of the innate draw to power which resides within the breast of every human being. Unchecked ambition will always leave ruin and destruction in its wake.

Works Cited

Shakespeare, William. Macbetyh. The Complete Works of Shakespeare. 6^th Ed. David Bevington. New     York: Pearson, 2009. 1255-1292.

English politician, moralist, and Baron, Lord Acton once stated “Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great men are almost always bad men.” It is the nature of a human being to gravitate toward positions of power that allow the person to control and manipulate the situations in which they are involved. Unfortunately, more times than not when a person achieves this position, he or she begins to abuse the power which was vested in him or her. This has been seen in nearly every governmental office in nearly every government which has existed on Earth. From democratic leaders taking absolute dictatorial control of a country to elected officials abusing power given to them by their constituents, the lack of regard for control seems to permeate all offices of power. In Shakespeare’s play, A Measure for Measure, this abuse of power is exhibited in Lord Angelo after he has been elevated to the place of ultimate authority in Vienna.

In the play, the Duke, who is the normal ruler of Vienna, elevated Lord Angelo to his position of power as he leads everyone in his court to believe that he will be departing Vienna on business. However, unbeknownst to everyone, the Duke dresses as a friar in order to observe the goings on within his court in his absence. While in power, Angelo begins to harshly enforce the kingdom’s laws in regard to appropriate sexual behavior. Angelo, citing his belief that Vienna had become too free, began to take action against the brothels of the city and even private citizens who were caught in sexually inappropriate behavior. Shakespeare uses this scenario to lay the groundwork for the corruption which power can bring.

Lord Angelo is portrayed as a strict moralist which, in and of itself, is not necessarily an issue. However, Lord Angelo’s great flaw is his great lack of mercy. In his crusade against the sexual misconduct of Vienna, a young citizen named Claudio is imprisoned following the discovery that his fiancé had become pregnant outside of wedlock; although, the couple planned to marry. Claudio was then tried and sentenced to death for his crime against the laws of Vienna and to serve as an example for would-be law breakers. Claudio’s sister, Isabella, is a picture of virtue within the story. She is a virgin who had great plans of entering a convent, but was forced to put her plans on hold in response to Claudio’s arrest and sentencing. Although Isabella did not approve of Claudio’s choices, she was compelled by her devotion to her brother to beg Lord Angelo for her brother’s life. At this point in the story, Shakespeare shows how absolute power can change a person.

At this point, it is prudent to remember that Angelo has been portrayed as a crusader against sexual immorality and a strict moralist who does not have a pension for mercy, especially against those who had been convicted of sexual crimes. However, even in the light of these characteristics, when Angelo was presented the opportunity to abuse his power for his own personal gain, he eschews his previously high moral standing in favor of carnal desire. After Isabella’s plea, Lord Angelo offers Claudio respite from the weight of his sentence in exchange for Isabella’s virtue. Isabella is then faced with one of the most difficult choices in all of Shakespearian drama. Should she save her brother and lose everything which was important to her? Or should she perhaps selfishly keep her virtue and allow her brother to become a martyr of the law? Almost immediately, Isabella refuses Lord Angelo’s offer, inherently dooming Claudio to death for his sexual crime. Claudio then begs Isabella to give in so that he might be spared the unjust sentence which had been levied upon him. However, Isabella continues to refuse, valuing her virtue above all else. It is difficult to fault Isabella for her refusal because the maintenance of her virginity was paramount to the calling which she felt she had on her life. Therefore, it is almost inappropriate and doubtlessly selfish for Claudio to even attempt to goad Isabella into giving what she had worked so hard to maintain in exchange for his life.

Fortunately for the protagonist characters, the Duke, disguised as the friar, offers respite from Lord Angelo’s inappropriate suggestion. The Duke tells Isabella of Lord Angelo’s ex-fiancé, Mariana, who he had broken off his engagement following the loss of her dowry in a shipwreck which also killed her brother. The Duke proposes that Isabella agree to Lord Angelo’s suggestion, but to send Mariana in her place. According to Angelo’s word, Claudio would be pardoned following his tryst with Isabella. After Claudio’s pardoning, the group would reveal their deception which would force the marriage between Angelo and Mariana according to the law. All goes according to plan except for one major flaw in the plan. Lord Angelo once again exemplifies the pitfall of power by refusing to honor his end of the bargain and pardoning Claudio. In all honesty, Angelo had nothing to fear as Isabella would have no legal recourse as she would be accused of being a sexual criminal if she was to come forward and challenge Angelo’s ruling. Therefore, Angelo felt very safe and secure and believed that he would get his sexual tryst and his example of justice. However, the friar comes to the rescue once again, sending the decapitated head of a sea pirate in the place of Claudio’s head. Angelo believed his order to be carried out. Shortly thereafter, the Duke “returned” from his trip and reassumed authority in Vienna.

Isabella brings charges of moral impropriety against Lord Angelo to the Duke in his court. At first, the Duke pretends not to believe her story causing Angelo to become quite smug. However, in a moment of dramatic flair, the Duke reveals the dual role which he had been playing throughout the play. Lord Angelo is forced to confess to his moral failings bringing shame upon him. Angelo requests a death sentence, but is instead sentenced to marry Mariana. Claudio is pardoned and the Duke asks for Isabella’s hand in marriage. However, Isabella never responds within the discourse of the play, but it is assumed that she would be happy to wed the Duke.

There are many themes that run through Shakespeare’s dark comedy, Measure for Measure. From the loss of sexual independence to the rampant moral failings of society, the play is another example of Shakespeare’s amazing ability to wrap such multifaceted thematic elements into a single cohesive stage production. Lord Angelo’s abuse of power is one of these thematic elements. The simple truth that abuse and hypocrisy run rampant when absolute power is granted to an individual cannot be ignored. Lord Angelo’s departure from his moral uprightness in exchange for the satiation of his carnal desire exemplifies the abuse of power in the context of the play and serves as an example of how power can affect and has affected leaders in the world both past and present. One would do well to consider heavily the truth of Lord Acton’s words. “Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.”

Works Cited

Shakespeare, William. Measure for Measure. The Complete Works of Shakespeare. 6^th Ed. David               Bevington. New York: Pearson, 2009. 414-454.

There are many emotions and impulses which drive the human psyche. Fear, shame, and the desire for safety are just a few of these innate forces which compel human behavior. Each one of these drives is responsible for the emotional state and behavioral actions of a person in response to a given stimuli. These impulses can override a person’s common sense with little to no resistance as the impulses need for satiation begins to dominate the person’s thought patterns. One of the most influential and demanding of these impulses is desire. Whether it is the desire for emotional or physical fulfillment, achievement, or success, desire can cause a person to act in ways which he or she would not normally act. The influence which unabated desire can have on a person is recounted in Shakespeare’s long poem, The Rape of Lucrece.

Within the poem, as the title suggests, the story centers on the horrific rape of the chaste maiden, Lucrece. The events preceding Lucrece’s rape are nearly as crude as the rape itself. They began with Lucrece’s braggart husband, Collatine, praising her chastity to a group of his fellow army officers. Upon hearing Collatine’s confident boasts, Tarquin, who was a member of the ruling family, was incensed. For unknown reasons, he felt the overwhelming compulsion to end Lucrece’s chastity.

Now thinks he that her husband’s shallow tongue, / The niggard prodigal that praised her so, / In that high task hath done her beauty wrong, / Which far exceeds his barren skill to show. / Therefore that praise which Collatine doth owe / Enchanted Tarquin answers with surmise, / In silent wonder of still-gazing eyes (78-84).

This quoted refers to Tarquin as “enchanted” by the praises of chastity which Collatine lavished upon his wife. This was the seed of Tarquin’s desire to destroy Lucrece’s most prized possession: her chastity.

Tarquin took leave of the military camp and traveled to Collatine’s house in order to accomplish his dastardly goal. Upon his arrival, Lucrece welcomed him into her house because she knew fully that her husband would have done so, and it would have been dishonoring to her husband if she was to turn Tarquin away. Following dinner, Tarquin conversed with Lucrece into the night. “For, after supper, long he questioned / With modest Lucrece and wore out the night” (121-122). The next lines in the poem are very telling as to Tarquin’s state of mind as he pondered the deed which he had come to Lucrece’s residence to accomplish. “And everyone to rest himself betakes, / Save thieves and cares and troubled minds that wakes” (124-125). The thief in this line is Tarquin as his intention was to come into the house and steal what was most precious to Lucrece and, by proxy, Collatine. The end of the line suggests that Tarquin was not resting easily as his conscience began to argue with his desire. “And now this lusty lord leapt from bed, / Throwing his mantle rudely o’er his arm; / Is madly tossed between desire and dread” (169-171).

The next part of the poem is an extended monologue where Tarquin weighs the possible consequences of his decision against the pressing call for fulfillment of his desire for Lucrece. It is apparent from Tarquin’s monologue that he was fully aware of the consequences for the temporary fulfillment of his lusty desire. “Yea, though I die, the scandal will survive / And be an eyesore in my golden coat” (204-205). Through this statement, the reader understands that Tarquin is completely aware that his indiscretion will not only affect his life, but the future generations of his entire family. He even understood the fleeting nature of his lusty desire for Lucrece. “What win I, if I gain the thing I seek? / A dream, A breath, a froth of fleeting joy” (212-213). 

At this point, a person who was thinking clearly would be able to remove him or herself from the situation and understand that the fleeting pleasure would not be worth his family’s honor. The only issue with this assessment is that Tarquin was not in a proper state of mind. Rather, at this point in the poem he was being driven by his desire. Although Tarquin was able to maintain rational thought, it is almost as if his physical body detached itself from his logical mind. Even as he was sneaking to Lucrece’s bed chamber, he was able to continue logical thought questioning his own actions as he moved forward. Eventually Tarquin’s desire won over his logical mind and it began to conspire with his body.

Why hunt I then for color or excuses? / All orators are dumb when beauty pleadeth; / Poor wretches have remorse in poor abuses; / Love thrives not in the heart that shadows dreadeth. / Affection is my captain, and he leadeth; / And when his gaudy banner is displayed, the coward fights and will not be dismayed” (267-273).

Any resistance which remained in Tarquin passed away with this utterance. He was fully under the influence of desire and had no further need to justify his quest to himself.

One might ask, “Why would Tarquin throw everything away for a moment of pleasure so fleeting?” The answer to this question lies in the absolute control which desire can have on a person. When a person is under the influence of desire, the mind has the ability to induce tunnel vision. While under this condition, a person is unable to see the larger picture and the only thing which holds any sway is the fulfillment of the desire at hand. Many lives have been destroyed over the loss of control in a single moment.

In a biblical encounter between the brothers Jacob and Esau, Esau sells his birthright to Jacob for a bowl of stew. In the Hebrew culture, birthright was everything. The owner of the birthright received a double portion of his father’s inheritance and became the patriarch of the family following the death of the current patriarch. He was the judge and decision maker within the family. Basically, this is a status which no person under normal circumstances would ever consider relinquishing. However, Esau was driven by the desire to satiate his hunger. After coming in from the field, Esau asked Jacob for some stew which Jacob had been preparing. In reply, Jacob bargained for Esau’s birthright.

With his impulsive decision, Esau lost the patriarchal status which he would have had upon his father’s death. Therefore, the family line passed to Jacob instead of Esau. The consequences of this decision are made evident in God’s encounter with Moses at the burning bush. Moses was to be the man who led God’s people from captivity to the Promised Land. He is an extremely important historical figure and his influence lasts into today. Upon Moses’ entrance to the holy place where he physically encountered God Almighty, God introduces himself to Moses as “the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.” If Esau had not sold his birthright, it would have been his name which God himself spoke to Moses. Instead, Esau is mostly forgotten. In Tarquin’s case, the consequences for his indiscretion were dire to his family as well. They were removed as the ruling family and driven out of the country.

Desire is a powerful force which drives many sane men and women to consider insane actions. Desire masks the power of a person’s logical brain to see the larger picture and completely focuses the person’s attention on the object or person which he or she is pursuing. In these instances, it is vitally important for a person to be able to reframe his or her thinking in order to refocus on the bigger picture. What if Tarquin had not decided to give into desire? He might have inherited a kingdom. What about Esau? He would be a patriarch in the line of Israel and God himself would have spoken his name. The warning of Shakespeare’s poem is clear, one action, driven by desire and devoid of reason, can completely destroy centuries of work and can alter the course of a person’s future forever. Now the question falls to you. In those moments of desire where you cannot see passed the object or person who is dominating your thoughts, would you trade everything which is important to you, your birthright, for something as fleeting as a bowl of stew?

Works Cited

Shakespeare, William. The Rape of Lucrece. The Complete Works of Shakespeare. 6^th Ed. David   Bevington. New York: Pearson, 2009. 1672-1697.

Perception is defined as the act or faculty of apprehending by means of the senses or of the mind. At the most basic level, perception is the way in which a person experiences the world within the faculties of the person’s self-consciousness. The person’s perception is the basis for his or her personality and is the vehicle for his or her interactions with the rest of the world. Many factors can alter the manner in which a person perceives the world. Experiences, prejudices, and learned behaviors are just a few of these altering factors which affect perception. Perception is an inescapable part of the human experience and is necessary for even the most basic interactions. Although perception is necessary, it can also be dangerous when a person’s perception is altered to the point of paranoia. A warped self-perception can indeed become a vehicle for dramatic and sometimes violent acting out. In William Shakespeare’s tragedy, Othello, the reader experiences first-hand the detriment which an altered self-perception can have on a person and those who surround the person.

In the play, Othello, the protagonist, is a celebrated general whose feats on the battlefield have been unmatched by any of his contemporary army officers. He is lauded by those around him as a war hero and a man of strong character who is well liked by almost anyone with whom he comes into contact. Othello is married to a beautiful young maiden named Desdemona who loves him desperately to a fault. He is surrounded by a strong core of military men who have also proved themselves in battle and, except for the wolf in sheep’s clothing Iago, hold an unwavering loyalty to his directives and order. On the surface, it would seem as if Othello had everything to celebrate and lacked nothing; however, deep inside of Othello was a storm which roiled and threatened to grow beyond control with the slightest provocation. This storm was not based in anger or even jealousy. Rather, the element which tormented the celebrated general was his perception of the way in which the world perceived him.

For all of Othello’s good qualities, he had several insecurities that tormented him. The first and the most afflicting insecurity rooted from Othello’s physical makeup. He was a Moor, a Muslim from northern Africa, and Shakespeare’s audience would have seen that Othello was black. Although Othello had fought countless battles for the European rulers who sponsored him, he still felt separated from his contemporaries due to the stark racial divisions which racked Europe at the time in which the play was set. This underlying feeling of unworthiness acutely affected the way in which Othello perceived those around him. Second, Othello felt as if his lack of education and social grace also impeded his ability to interact with those of the upper class.

“Rude am I in my speech, / And little blessed with the soft phrase of peace; / For since these arms of mine had seven years’ pith, / Till now some nine moons wasted, they have used / Their dearest action in the tented field; / And little of this great world can I speak/ More than pertains to feats of broils and battle, / And therefore little shall I grace my cause in speaking for myself” (I.iii.83-91).

This quote from Othello speaks volumes about how he believes those of the upper class perceive him. He is fundamentally unable to allow himself to be viewed as worthy by those with whom he interacts. This imbalance was not lost on the cunning Iago. Iago would take advantage of Othello’s self-perception, which is Othello’s tragic flaw and leads to his ultimate demise, for the remainder of the production.

Throughout the play, the audience experiences the manipulation of Othello’s tragic flaw by the guile of the devious Iago. He plays on the trust in which Othello has vested him and Othello’s underlying insecurities by using his smooth words to vilify innocent situations and people. Iago is able to bring Othello’s paranoid nature to the surface and turn the general against all those who truly love him. The question which nags at the audience is: Why is Othello so eager to turn on those who have never given him a reason to doubt their trust? The answer comes from inside of Othello and points back to the unworthiness which he felt regarding his life situation.

Deep down, Othello did not believe that anyone could love him or show loyalty. His inherent distrust spawns forth from his belief about the way those around him perceived him. He believed that no one would ever be able to see past “the Moor” to really understand Othello from the inside out which is what he desperately needed. His perception was so overwhelming that he failed to recognize Desdemona’s love to be the true and pure love which he so desperately needed. Iago, using his astute powers of perception, understood Othello’s underlying insecurity and took full advantage. Through whispers and cunning manipulation, Iago was able to reduce Othello’s very existence into a pile of rubble which did not represent its former glory even in effigy. The real tragedy within the production is the fact that Othello failed to realize his fatal flaw until his life laid in ruin.

“When you shall these unlucky deeds relate, / Speak of me as I am; nothing extenuate. / Nor set down aught in malice. Then must you speak / Of one that loved not wisely but too well; / Of one note easily jealous but, being wrought, / Perplexed in the extreme; of one whose hand, / Like the base Indian, threw a pearl away / Richer than all his tribe; of one whose subdued eyes” (V.ii.350-358).

Finally, after wounding himself mortally, Othello was able to see his life and love for what they were in truth and he realized the gravity of his distrust.

Was Othello a victim? Certainly, but was he a victim of Iago’s cunning or his own self-perception stemming from his innate distrust and perceived unworthiness? In the end, Othello was a victim of his past. He was unable to move beyond the experiences which colored his perception, and, because of this, he became easy prey for Iago’s manipulation. Othello is a tragic example of how an altered self-perception can truly destroy a person’s psychological state with an added stressor. To go from celebrated general to cold-blooded murderer over the course of several days is perhaps unbelievable. However, Shakespeare makes his case for the havoc that an altered self-perception can wreak upon the when an adeptly placed outside stressor is added to an already volatile situation. In Othello, Shakespeare constructs a haunting caution against one making assumptions about how a person might feel toward that person without seeking confirmation from the source and against rash, emotional action. Ironically, within the play, the villain Iago provides the moral which Shakespeare used to underline the main thematic element of the play and the stressor which would push Othello’s broken self-perception beyond sanity. The reader would do well to remember his haunting words, “Beware, my lord, of jealousy. / It is the green-eyed monster which doth mock / the meat it feeds on” (III.iii.179-180).

Bibliography

Shakespeare, William. Othello. The Complete Works of Shakespeare. Ed. David Bevington. New York:    Pearson, 2009. 1150-1201.

War is a terrible human practice which leaves nothing but destruction in its wake. Soldiers fight and die for political, economic, or religious idealism. Civilians are made destitute through the destruction of property or die in the crossfire between the two warring groups. In many modern wars, even children are used as weapons to confuse and disorient the enemy. Women and children are brutalized in terrorist attacks by warring parties to psychologically break the enemy. Soldiers witness the deaths of their closest comrades in the most horrific ways imaginable. When the dust settles and the ceasefires are signed, one must wonder whether or not the battle is truly complete. In light of the horrors which soldiers and civilians suffer during the course of war, it is completely understandable that the ramifications of war would continue beyond the battlefield and haunt the participants and victims for many years following the cessation of fighting. Often people returning from a combat theater are irrevocably changed. In Leslie Marmon Silko’s novel, Ceremony, she tells the story of Tayo, a war veteran attempting to rediscover his identity and recover what years of conflict stole from him.

Before delving into Tayo’s military history, it is prudent to lay the foundation of his past in order to frame the effects which the horrors of war can have on the human psyche.  Tayo’s life challenges began at a very young age. He was born to a mother who, due to selfishness, was basically incapable of caring for him. She finally abandoned Tayo for good when he was four. This abandonment made Tayo a dispossessed person among a displaced people. It also laid the foundations for the identity issues which Tayo would experience as his life would progress. After his mother left, Tayo was begrudgingly taken in by his aunt. His adoption, although necessary for survival, was a double edged sword which again led to the delayed realization of identity for Tayo.

The reason that his adoption was a double edge sword really revolved around his Aunt and the way in which she chose to treat Tayo. The first and positive aspect of Tayo’s relationship with his Aunt was the fact that she provided for his basic needs such as food, clothing, and shelter. However, what she provided in the realm of physical need did not make up for the void which she left in the realm of Tayo’s emotional need. Tayo’s cousin, Rocky, also lived in the house. Rocky was the all-American dream. He was a football star and well liked by everyone within the community in which the family lived. Tayo’s aunt ensured that Rocky was always placed above Tayo. She made a concerted effort to instill a basic inferiority within Tayo. This inferiority carried over to his adult life, but it had a much more profound effect inside of Tayo. Because of the subjugation at the hands of his aunt, Tayo experienced a delay in the definition of his identity.

Tayo was a poster child for dual consciousness.  He felt especially called to follow the traditional ways of his people, but he grew up in a “Christian” house where the Native American heritage was looked down upon. This pulled Tayo in two completely different directions as far as his psychological makeup and development were concerned. Tayo’s repression of identity, feelings of inferiority and insecurity, and the initial feelings of abandonment laid the groundwork for his breakdown following his experience in World War II.

Although Tayo’s status as a veteran is not Silko’s central focus throughout the narrative, it is difficult for the reader to miss the importance of Tayo’s military history in regard to the fracturing of his psyche. While Tayo was deployed to the Pacific Theater, he was ordered to open fire on a group of Japanese soldiers. While looking into their faces, he believed that one of them was his uncle. This was, of course, false, but the psychological damage caused to Tayo was no less significant than if his uncle had been among the slaughtered soldiers. During the course of the conflict in the Pacific, Rocky was also killed. The loss of his cousin and the horrors of war combined to break the Tayo’s already weakened constitution.

He spent the first several months back from the war in a Veteran’s hospital in California recovering from a mental breakdown. His experience had left him with a fractured identity and a raging case of shell shock, now termed Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). When he reentered his community, he was confronted by several other former soldiers who were also experiencing extreme psychological degradation. Each one of these “friends” took to self-medicating with alcohol to deaden pain which was the only vestige of the war which remained within the veterans. Tayo and his friends were depressed and prone to outbursts of rage. These are all classic symptoms of PTSD.

PTSD affects many soldiers in today’s army and Tayo’s story can be replayed biographically for so many of the veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan. Suicide rates in the army have increased sharply as PTSD has become more prevalent throughout the soldier population in an army ill-prepared to handle the challenges associated with treating the disorder. Many end up like Tayo’s friends who eventually had to find another outlet for their untreated anger and turned to murder to satiate their feelings. Soldiers today, like soldiers in the past, rely on alcohol to numb the open wounds found on their delicate psyche. Fortunately, Ceremony is not just a story about what the ravages of war can do to a man. Instead, it is a tale of the redemption, recovery, and the reclamation of an unknown identity.

Tayo, after a series of events which were part of a new ceremony, was cleansed of the demons from his past. His journey from broken to restored serves as a beacon for those who might be experiencing the terrible feelings associated with psychological trauma, especially PTSD. Tayo needed something in which to believe. His belief in the ceremonial past of his Native American heritage was the key to his redemption and the final establishment of his identity after years of struggling to find it. This model can be utilized by the soldiers of today in order to combat the psychological degradation which PTSD causes. Of course these soldiers probably will not seek out a Native American ceremony; rather, like Tayo, the soldier should find a faith from his or her past in which he or she can believe. It does not even have to be a religious faith. The person’s faith just has to be strong enough in order for the person to believe that the path which he or she has chosen has the ability to redeem and, once on that path, the person must have the fortitude to see the change through to the end. Tayo is a fantastic example for soldiers today of a person’s ability to overcome adversity and reclaim what belonged to him all along.

For many, death is one of the most daunting thoughts which can captivate and dominate a person’s mind. This is especially true for those people who believe that death is the ultimate end to a person’s existence. In many religions, however, there exists the idea of an afterlife. Whether it is eternal reward, reincarnation, damnation, or reconciliation of family, religious people have the belief that life does not stop at death. However, even in most religious settings, death is still an event to be mourned due to the loss of the person who has passed on from this life. The Native American’s believe that there is life after death; however, the way in which they treat death is much different from many contemporary religions. The belief about death and how the Native people treat death is truly accentuated in Leslie Marmon Silko’s short-story, “The Man to Send Rain Clouds.”

The beginning of the story immediately sets the mood for the story. Leon and his brother-in-law went to their family field in order to check on their grandfather, Teofilo. Upon entering the field, they found Teofilo dead under a tree. Under the circumstances, many people today would have broken down and begun to mourn immediately. However, the response of the two young men says volumes about the Native beliefs about death. Instead of beginning the process of mourning immediately as one would expect today, the men first tend to the sheep. On the surface, this might seem a callused and a grossly inappropriate emotional response to the death of their elder. However, in tending to Teofilo’s job, they are actually honoring the man.

This is a difficult concept for people outside of the Native culture to understand. Reading this from an outsider’s point of view, the reader almost wants to stop reading the story due to the cultural disconnection and the perceived disrespect with which the men treated Teofilo. However, it is necessary to frame Teofilo’s death within the scope of the Native American belief about death. First, they did not believe that this was Teofilo’s ultimate end. Therefore, understanding that their grandfather had departed the physical world and joined with their ancestors, they knew that Teofilo would want the men to take care of the physical needs of the herd and the well-being of the family rather than his empty soul shell. In light of this fact, it would have been a dishonor to Teofilo for the men to leave the herd unattended and scattered.

As the initial encounter continues, the affection which the men have for their grandfather becomes evident.  In fact, after preparing the old man’s body, Leon actually smiles at the corpse and asks his Grandfather’s spirit to send rainclouds to his tribe. The most troublesome aspect of this encounter for an outsider is the apparent lack of sadness which the men had regarding Teofilo’s death. This is not an oversight by Silko. Rather, it is convincing evidence to suggest that the men were comfortable with the death. It can then be inferred that the tribe as a whole would have seen the death with more of an eternal scope, eschewing the temporal absence of Teofilo.

There are many conceptual similarities between the Native American belief system and other world religious systems. However, many times in actual practice, there is a gaping chasm between conceptual belief and how the different cultures actually deal with death. After perusing any amount of Native literature, it is not difficult for a reader to truly believe what Silko and other Native American authors assert about the way Native Americans contend with death. It would seem as if they take the deaths of their loved ones stoically and with a certain joy. However, even in such religions as Christianity which believes that death is only a brief stopping point until one is vested with his or her eternal reward, death is audaciously mourned and layered with much pomp and circumstance.

It is unlikely that an outsider could ever truly understand the deep seeded peace which Native Americans have in regard to death. The community’s reaction or, more accurately, the lack of audacious reaction, to the death of Teofilo in “The Man to Send Rain Clouds” tells the story of death for the culture. While significant, death is only a short respite from the deceased person’s presence. It is honoring of the dead for the living to continue on as the deceased would have expected if they had not passed away. In addition, the Natives of the specific tribe written about in the story believed that Teofilo would send them rain as his final gesture of goodwill toward his people: one final gift of rain to his people with peals of thunder to celebrate his arrival with the ancestors.

When reading stories written by Native Americans inspired by their state of existence following the colonization of the United States by the European settlers, the reader cannot help from experiencing the utter despair which the Native peoples felt in the wake of the loss of their way of life. The hopelessness which is purveyed within page after page of both fictional and nonfictional works pierces the heart of the reader like a rapier. It is truly a heart rending experience which truly captures the despair that defined much of the Native American experience for many decades. To be born into a defeated culture which was the constant target of racism and discrimination at the hands of those who were called conquerors perpetuated the cycle of hopeless and helpless feelings among those within the Native American culture. The racist attitudes toward the Native Americans also served as a shackle which bound them to a caste which offered no opportunity for advancement within the conqueror’s culture. This lack of opportunity and hopelessness is once again brought to the forefront of the reader’s mind in the story “A Good Opportunity” by Elizabeth Cook-Lyn.

The story itself was narrated by a Native American who had, against all odds, overcome the social norm and succeeded within the culture of the conqueror. The narrator was on a quest to find her poet brother, Magpie, and offer him a chance to attend a fine arts school in California. The reader is given the impression that Magpie has lived a storied life ranging from spending time learning at a white college to a brush with the law which left him on parole and in a rather dilapidated state. The reader also is given the impression that Magpie was once a man who had dreams of breaking free from the societal bounds dictated to him by the culture in which he lived and succeeding within the culture of the conqueror. However, the Magpie who was presented in the story is a much different man from the idealistic youth with big dreams which the narrator remembered.

Magpie had been broken, defeated, and, in essence, conquered once again by the white society which had taken so much from the Native American culture and now had taken an equal measure from Magpie’s individual life. The once driven youth had been jaded and broken by a society which desired to see him fail. His feelings of failure were compounded when he was forced to return to his hometown, Chamberlain, and faced ridicule from the white population for his failure and from the Native American population for his choice to leave in the first place. This had irrevocably destroyed the young man, but the narrator hoped to extend a branch of “hope” to the distraught man with her invitation to once again study at a white fine arts college. The narrator sought out the people who had become closest to Magpie in his new life in Chamberlain, his wife and his mistress.  During the encounter with both of these women, the narrator is led to believe that Magpie would have no desire to return to white society as he had embraced a separatist attitude and reverted completely back into his Native heritage. Even in light of the women’s discouragement, the narrator remembered the literary spark within Magpie and would not be deterred from her quest.

Finally, after extreme persistence, the narrator was offered an opportunity to meet with Magpie later in the evening. Unfortunately, the meeting never occurred. The narrator and Magpie’s mistress, after following the directions from a mutual acquaintance, approach the rear entrance of a house where Magpie was supposed to be spending the evening. As the pair entered the house, they were greeted by an extremely somber crowd of acquaintances with one notable exception, Magpie. The narrator questions the crowd about Magpie’s whereabouts and is given the devastating news that Magpie had been murdered by the police earlier in the day. Magpie’s murder effectively ended the narrator’s quest, but it also had a much more symbolic meaning. The death of Magpie also symbolized the death of hope for the Native American people to succeed in white society.

Whether or not there is a chance for the Native American to succeed in the society of the conqueror is a subject which can be debated intelligently on both sides and depends largely on the debater’s perception of success. In a changing, diverse, and more tolerant American society, the chances for Native American success are more prevalent today than at any other time in American history. Although the opportunity for success is more accessible than ever to the Native American population, many of the people within this culture continue to have success elude them. Why then, in a society where immigrants, former slaves, and people formerly stricken by poverty can and do succeed every day, does the Native American population continue to struggle to find success? The answer for this question lies in the death of Magpie, the death of hope.

When the Native Americans were conquered, they were summarily murdered, assimilated, or cast aside like rubbish. The utter and absolute destruction of the Native American culture was horrific and had much more far reaching effects for the remaining population of Native Americans within the borders of the conqueror’s country. In effect, when the Native Americans were conquered, the culture lost everything which had defined it. More devastating than the physical loss of land was the loss of hope and identity. This loss is acclaimed loudly in “A Good Chance” with Magpie becoming the poster boy for unresolved dreams and the utter devastation which the loss of hope can have on not only an individual, but more so, on a culture.

Many Native American writings are thoroughly saturated with a depressed mood accentuated by the loss of hope and identity. Why would a culture that has been stamped into the dirt write in such a way as to call attention to its plight? Why dwell on the destruction of the past and not focus on the potential hope of the future? The answer to this question is understanding. In order for the Native culture to move forward, it must understand its past. Essentially, the Native Americans must embrace the pain of their hopeless past in order to press on and reclaim what is rightfully theirs, their identity which was lost in the suffering of the past. If the culture as a whole is unable to grasp from where it has come, then it will never move beyond the helpless and hopeless feelings which are so evident in Native American writing. With tolerance at an all time high in America, there has never been a better chance for the Native culture to step forward and reclaim its lost identity and, more importantly, the hope to carry on.

For centuries, language has defined culture. The ancient Egyptians are known for the complex system of symbol based language which they used to record their history. The Greek culture is known for its systematic use of language to begin to define much of the known world in scientific terms. American writers used literature essentially to write America, to include American values and “the American Dream”, into a national existence. Language is a powerful tool which can allow cultures to share the same experiences over the course of many generations. Language is an integral part of the Native American culture. Within the culture itself, language serves as the building block from which the culture is formed, but even more than the serving as a cultural building block, the Native American culture believes that language defines the individual.

“It seems to me that in a certain sense we are all made of words; that our most essential being consists in language. It is the element in which we think, dream, and act, in which we live our daily lives” (Momaday 82). This statement made by N. Scott Momaday in “The Man Made of Words,” sums up succinctly the Native American belief on the importance of language. The words that emerge from a person’s mouth say so much more than the words of people in other cultures. To honestly believe and teach the concept that a man or woman is made solely of the words which come from their mouth is a concept so foreign within an American culture in which lies are glorified (read: tabloids) and the truth is becoming more and more obscured in the avalanche of falsity is nearly heretical. The divide between the Native American culture and the American culture at large in regard to the importance of language is vast, but this was not always so.

Even in recent American history, language used to hold a certain level of importance. People laboriously composed letters to loved ones carefully choosing each and every word to ensure that the writer’s message was not misinterpreted or obscured in any way. Over the course of the last several decades, though, the importance of language in America has waned and the English language has slowly been dismantled into the “lols” of text speech leaving the common spoken word as a skeleton of what it used to be. This gross injustice to the spoken English language would not have occurred within the Native American culture because of the importance placed upon spoken language.

The spoken language was so important to the Native American that the native peoples did not attempt to write their history down. Instead, they depended on the accurate perpetuation of a story or event through the spoken word of an eloquent story teller. Native Americans believe that the emotional emphasis that comes with spoke word is paramount in language, because, after all, language is more than a cluster of words which details an event. Language is the expression of the human experience and its importance cannot be understated.

Is the Native American’s dependence upon the spoken language a boon or a detriment to the culture as a whole in the scope of the history of the world? The answer to this question is not one that comes easily. After all, the only reason that people of today are able to share in the Native American experience is because many of their spoken tales have been written down and published. Does this cheapen the value of the Native American’s emphasis on spoken word? This answer, more than likely, would differ from source to source. There are those within the culture who strive to maintain the traditional values passed down by their ancestors in a traditional manner; however, in an ever changing world, preservation of culture has become more dependent upon written accounts of culture which is contrary to the traditional importance placed on spoken word. In reality, a healthy balance of both spoken and written language would best serve the Native American community because it would allow the culture to retain one of its most important facets while allowing the preservation of the culture in the annals of world history.

The societal view regarding the inferiority of women in their relationship to men has been perpetuated for thousands of years. Women have continually existed under the umbrella assumption stating their accomplishments and abilities are automatically lessened due to the gender to which they were born. Is this a problem of the past? The short answer to the question posed is no. The occupational and social inequality which women experience today is the same injustice which has plagued every generation of women since the first women walked the Earth. The question one must ask is “Has any major male thinker ever considered whether or not men and women might actually be equal in regard to their potential contribution to society?”

Plato was Greek philosopher and mathematician who followed in the footsteps of Socrates. Plato’s musings on the universe and the role of humanity have had a great influence on the current state of Western philosophy in regard to the way many view society. He theorized on a vast number of challenges and natural enigmas which humanity faces.

One of Plato’s most lasting contributions to society stems from his views of a woman’s nature and her natural role. Plato was actually a revolutionary thinker in this capacity. He believed women could make a positive contribution to society as more than property or a helpmate. His belief was radical at the time. He espoused this theory in his work The Republic. This was a fictional account of Plato’s ideal Utopian society. Within the pages of the work, Plato documents a woman’s capability to contribute positively to society as a whole.

Although his view of a woman’s role was revolutionary for his time period, Plato was not able to shake every misogynist attitude within his works. Plato did believe that women could contribute positively to society. However, Plato did not believe that a woman’s contribution could eclipse a man’s contribution. In an instance where a man and a woman had an equal standing, Plato’s belief dictated that a woman could do the same job as a man, but the woman’s work would be inferior.

Plato’s ideas regarding the pseudo-equal standing of the genders was new and highly controversial. Society as a whole did not grasp this concept at the time and several of Plato’s most prominent works and theories were lost for many generations. In fact, Aristotle’s contribution to philosophy eclipsed Plato’s, Aristotle’s mentor, for the period in which Plato’s works were in disuse. Upon the rediscovery of these works by Plato in the fifteenth century, many philosophers questioned the societal beliefs as a whole toward women.

Long after Plato had passed on, his philosophies and views on women helped to shape society. Many of his theories and philosophies continue to influence the societal views and values in regard to women today.

Literary canon is a subject that has been debated for a very long time. The question of what bears inclusion and what is deemed unworthy of canonical status has long been asked with texts entering and leaving the hallowed halls of canon seemingly as through a revolving door. The traditional canonical authors have been male and white. However, over the last several decades, the definition of literary canon has expanded to encompass men and women of all races and backgrounds.

Langston Hughes poem, “I, too,” is one of the most acclaimed and transcendent poems ever penned. The subtle recount of history along with the glaring declaration of hope within the lines of the poem was the anthem for several generations of African American men and women seeking equal treatment. This poem has actually been credited with providing the name and heart behind the “Black is Beautiful” movement which started in the 1960s. This poem is without a doubt a member of today’s literary canon. According to Barbara Herrnstein Smith, canonical status is given to the literary works which “perform certain desired/able functions particularly well at a given time for some community of subjects” (148).  “I, too,” not only fits that definition to the letter, transcends its original purpose and serves as an anthem for anyone who may be lost and without hope. Therefore, due to the transcendent nature of its universal themes, “I, too” will continue to reside in the house of canonical status for many years to come.

The overly simplistic theme and language does not leave much for the formalist critic to dissect as the main thrust of this critical technique is to “close read” the text in order to pull out deeper meanings and thematic elements. “I, too” is a fairly straightforward declaration of the way in which African Americans have been historically treated by their white counterparts. A New Critic would look at the poem and see it for just what it is. A simple declaration of the way a person was treated within a racist culture and that person expressing hope and assurance that the quality of his life is going to improve as his household becomes more and more colorblind.

More pertinent to this particular piece of literature would be a cultural criticism. These critics look not only at the text, but how the text would have been received and the cultural influences which may have inspired the author to pen the poem. “I, too” is ripe for cultural analysis because it is a reflection of the African American culture during the times of overt and pervading racism. The beauty of this poem is more than the simplistic verbal declaration which it made, because it is not what Langston Hughes said in the poem, but where he said it. He made this declaration right in the face of the racist wave which threatened to destroy the precariously floating hope of African American people in the 1920s. The strength lies in when he made this declaration; therefore, making a cultural criticism much more valid for this piece.

Unfortunately, as with every different literary criticism, there are short comings of both the cultural and the New Critical techniques. In this particular piece screams for a cultural critique but would leave many New Critics out in the cold as there is not very much text to analyze and the message of this piece is extremely straightforward. Even a cultural critique could become weighed down because of the heavy implications that this poem carried. In the end, it is always better to use multiple critical techniques to analyze literature as this method offers a much more complete picture of what the author intended. To study “I, too” leaving out the cultural implications which this poem created would be tragic, but to just gloss over the weighty words found within the poem without pausing for analysis would be equally tragic.